Athens - The Theatre of Dionysus

The sacred precinct of Dionysus, god of the vine, fertility, revelry, and patron of theatrical competitions, is enclosed by a polygonal wall, of which some traces are still visible, and contains the ruined foundations of two temples of different periods, an altar, a stoa, and votive monuments, as well as the remains of a fourth century BC theatre.

Passing through the main gate we come to the conglomerate foundations of the second temple of Dionysus. This temple, built around the year 420 BC, consisted of the sanctuary proper (which housed the chryselephantine statue of the god by Alcamenes, a famous pupil of Pheidias; all that remains of this masterpiece are the foundations of its great base) and the pronaos on the east.

To the right of the foundations of the temple stands a tall marble pillar on which is recorded a decree of the Amphictyonic Council honoring the Dionysian Guild of Actors, an important body enjoying many privileges and numbering among its members poets and musicians. A little farther on is a delightful circular altar of Dionysus dating from the second century BC, carved with garlands, rosettes and masks of Silenus. A short distance north of this altar, just before we reach the theatre, are the blue limestone foundations of the first temple, a small construction in antis, built under Peisistratus, which housed the primitive wooden image (xoanon) of Dionysus. East of the foundations of this temple lie those of a large stoa with a Doric colonnade which was intended for the convenience of audiences and served as a foyer during intermissions.

The Greeks sited their theatres within easy reach of the city, and adapting their construction to the natural contour of hills built them on the slopes. The earliest theatres were intended for the performance of dithyrambic choruses and consisted of two principal parts: the orchestra - literally, "the dancing place" - a circle of beaten earth, roughly 20 m. in diameter, with the thymele (altar of the god) in the center, and the theatre, that is the auditorium, built in the form of two-thirds of a circle.

At the Great Dionysia during which a he-goat dedicated to the god was sacrificed, the chorus, carrying phallic symbols and dressed in goat-skins to resemble satyrs, sang the Dithyrambos to the accompaniment of a flute, and danced round the thymele of Dionysus Eleutherius. The Dithyrambos, a combination of both song and dance, was a passionate recital of the suffering and exploits of the god and later developed into a special class of Greek lyric poetry. One of the earliest forms of the drama, tragedy (literally goat-song), is derived from the Dithyrambos.

No lover of the theatre can fail to be moved as he stands before the Theatre of Dionysus, for this hallowed spot is the birthplace of Attic drama, where the plays of the great masters, Aeschylus, Sophochles, Euripides and Aristophanes were first performed.

In the Classical period there was no stage and the actors performed on the orchestra. In the Hellenistic period a colonnade was added behind the orchestra, to the proscenium. This colonnade supported a balcony on which the actors representing gods made their appearance; hence the term theologeion (Speaking-place of the gods). The chorus entered the orchestra along passages on either side of the stage. The audience also entered the theatre through the orchestra, from which they climbed the flights of steps leading to their seats. In Roman times seats for the spectators were also added to the orchestra. The actors then started performing on the proscenium, which was levelled above the ground in order to enhance the visibility of the spectators below them. The proscenium was later adorned with statues and other sculptures, particularly by the Emperor Nero in the first century AD.

The proscenium we see today was erected in the third century AD and dedicated to Dionysus by the Athenian archon Phaedrus (AD 224-225) as an inscription informs us. The high reliefs are Attic work of the first century AD and were taken from the proscenium set up by Nero. They represent scenes from the birth and worship of Dionysus. Left of the stairs to the hyposcenium Silenus crouches in the posture of Atlas. Right of the stairs: the Birth of Dionysus; Zeus is shown seated while Hermes stands before him holding the new-born infant in his arms; at the sides two kouretes (demigods, to whose protection his mother Rea entrusted the infant) are performing the Pyrrhic dance; then a scene of sacrifice: on the left Icarius leads a goat and is followed by his daughter Erigone and her dog Maera; at the right Dionysus followed by a young satyr initiates Icarius into the cultivation of the vine; another figure of Silenus crouches in the attitude of Atlas; then the Marriage of Dionysus with the Basilissa (Queen), with Tyche (Goddess of Fortune) carrying a cornucopia, and finally the scene of the enthronement of Dionysus in the theatre. In the presence of his bride, with Theseus representing Athens, Dionysus receives the homage of the gods and heroes of Attica; above them is the upper part of a Doric building, presumably the Parthenon.

Stage machinery and scenery were employed in the Greek Theatre from at least the fourth century BC. A light portable screen on which was painted the scene of the play (in tragedies invariably the facade of a royal palace) served as the background. Scenic changes were mainly effected by a periaktos, set up towards the foreground on each side of the stage. The periaktos was a device consisting of three side-scenes, turning on wooden pins and painted to suggest changes of locality, thus permitting the scenery at one or both ends of the stage to change, the background remaining always the same. The scene to the right of the audience indicated the city; to the left a far country. Actors entering from the right were shown as coming from the immediate neighborhood; those entering from the left, from a distance. There was a whole repertoire of stage noises, thunder, for example, being imitated by rolling casks filled with small stones down metal chutes. In various parts of the theatre bronze vessels of different tones amplified the actor's voices and carried them to the most distant parts of the auditorium.

In the earliest days of the drama there was only one actor in the cast; later a second was introduced, and by the time of Sophocles (495-406 BC) the usual number was three. These three actors (apart from the chorus) constituted the entire cast. This called for great versatility as they had to take all the parts in the play, including those of women, and necessitated rapid and frequent changes of costume. Besides acting, the players were required to be skilled dancers and singers, and since their features were hidden behind masks corresponding to the type of character they represented in a play they also had to be accomplished mimes. Certain conventions were observed as to their height and color of the hair: goddesses and young persons of either sex wore fair hair; gods, or older persons, were represented by brown hair; white hair was the color of old age, while black was reserved for Pluto (In Greek mythology, Prince of Hades) and his minions.

Actors playing heroic roles in tragedy wore thick-soled buskins to enhance their presence. Kings and queens wore splendid long-sleeved robes reaching to their feet, richly embroidered with bands of color. Actors impersonating women wore, of course, chiton and peplos, which varied in color according to the character they portrayed. Those playing the part of Teiresias, or other soothsayers, wore a net-like woolen robe. Hunters and athletes wore a purple mantle rolled round the left arm. Soiled garments of somber hue were symbolic of persons in distress.

The chorus, to the strains of a solemn march, entered the orchestra with the flute player at their head, sometimes in three lines of five, or five lines of three, where after arranging themselves in the form of a square they remained until the end. The chorus represented the perfect audience, and through their choryphaeos (leader), the third in the line nearest the spectators; the second and fourth were the leaders of the semi-choruses, their actions and comments assisted to the development of the play. As the plot unfolded it would change position on the orchestra, and if the action required it, break up into semi-choruses. At crucial moments the chorus would execute long lyrical pieces with appropriate gestures and dances.

Apart from being padded in comical fashion, actors in comedy mostly wore clothes modeled on those of everyday life. At times a short close-fitting tunic made them appear almost naked, while yet again in other comic plays the actors would wear either the usual goat's skin cloak or a threadbare mantle. Slaves were dressed in a leather jerkin and tight-fitting trousers. In a comedy the members of the chorus, twenty-four in number, were dressed according to the nature of the play. In Aristophanes' comedies for example, the chorus in The Birds wore bird-masks with open beaks, combs, feathers and wings; in The Wasps they carried stings; in The Clouds, they wore voluminous transparent draperies, while in The Frogs they were dressed in costumes to represent these amphibians.

It must be noted that the ancient theatre was no mere recreation, but a semi-religious function under the absolute control of the State. No individual had the right to produce a play without the sanction of the selection board presided over by the first archon, to whose judgement the poets submitted their plays for acceptance. Theatrical representations were an essential part of the religious festivals of the Dionysia in which, as we have already noted, the drama had its origins.

In addition to paying the successful authors an honorarium, the State engaged the actors, financed the production of the plays and undertook to maintain order during the performances. The expense of providing, and training the chorus was borne by a wealthy citizen, the choregus (sponsor), whom custom obliged to perform this public duty. Once accepted, authors had an entirely free hand in directing and producing their plays, in which they often acted themselves, sometimes designing the costumes and even composing the music. Since they could count on the support of the State and were certain of large and discerning audiences the standard of acting and production of the plays was correspondingly high.

These theatrical competitions took place only twice a year. The first and more ancient took place during the Lenaea, or Feast of Vats, in the month of Gamelion (JanuaryFebruary) and the second during the Great Urban Dionysia which was celebrated with exceptional splendor in the month of Elaphebolion (March-April).

For days before the celebration of the Great Urban Dionysia the whole town was astir. Business was at a standstill, the law courts were closed and sentences suspended. The festival lasted for six days, three of them devoted to the plays, three tragedies and a satyric play, or comedy, being performed each day, in all twelve plays. From daybreak immense crowds besieged the theatre, for it was only at the Great Urban Dionysia that plays could be seen during the author's lifetime.

Every play was judged by a committee, composed of one representative from each phylae, chosen by lot and bound by oath to give its judgement on the merits of the plays, the sponsors and the actors. At the end of the contests prizes were awarded. A golden crown was publicly conferred upon the winning poet. A crown was also awarded to the best choregus, who moreover had the privilege of dedicating a votive offering (usually a tripod) to Dionysus, while besides their customary honoraria monetary prizes were awarded to the best actors.

The auditorium, hewn out of the rock of the Acropolis, measuring approximately 100 m. in diameter, rises in tiers to a height of 30 m. Built to accommodate audiences estimated at between fourteen and eighteen thousand, it could, if necessary, seat a larger number. To allow easy access to the various parts of the theatre the parallel tiers of seats were divided horizontally into three concentric zones, running from one end of the auditorium to the other, and vertically into thirteen kerkides (wedge-like blocks).

The front row consisted of sixty-seven marble stalls reserved for priests, generals, heralds, and other high ranking officials, ambassadors of foreign states, and any other citizen or distinguished foreigner it was desired to honor. The existing stalls date from the first century AD and are presumably copies of older originals.

The central seat in the first row is the throne of the Priest of Dionysus Eleutherius; in spite of its damaged condition it has retained much of its former splendor. The throne is supported on lions' paws; below the seat a front panel depicts a fight between kneeling Arimaspi and winged griffins. The griffins were mythical monsters believed to be the guardians of the earth's gold, and the one-eyed Arimaspi, a Scythian tribe of ferocious robbers living on the northeastern borders of the world, somewhere in Siberia.

Behind the throne of the Priest of Dionysus stands part of the pedestal, with a Latin inscription, of a statue raised in honor of the Emperor Hadrian. To the left of the pedestal is the seat of the Priest of Olympian Victory. To the right another doublestall bears the inscription stratigou and kirikos, indicating that the seats were intended for a general and a herald. Higher up, on the third row and left of the seat of the Priest of Olympian Victory, is the throne offered to Marcus Ulpius Eubiotus, a benefactor of the City of Athens, and higher to the left of this is the base of a statue set up in honor of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Parts of the bases of statues honoring other illustrious personages are to be found in various places in the auditorium.

Above the Theatre of Dionysus, and under the Wall of Cimon, the face of the rock is cut vertically forming a scarp within which is a cave; at the entrance lie the scanty remains of the choregic monument erected by Thrasyllus of Dekeleia in 320 BC. This monument stood on a base of two steps and consisted of three pilasters supporting an architrave on which, in addition to the dedicatory inscription, the frieze, with a design of leaves and fruit, was carved in low relief. The architrave was surmounted by a three-stepped base on which rested the victor's bronze tripod. Later, in 271 BC, Thrasyllus' son, Trasycles, set up a statue of Dionysus as well as a votive tablet, recording his own triumphs as choregus. The statue was removed by Lord Elgin and later sold to the British Museum; the monument itself was destroyed during the siege of the Acropolis in 1826.

On the higher level, at the foot of the wall of Cimon, stand two Corinthian columns erected during the Roman period for the support of votive tripods.

East of the Theatre of Dionysus was the Odeion of Pericles, built mostly of timber. This splendid building, completed in 443 BC for rehearsal of the music and drama contests held during the Panathenaea and Dionysia, was considered the finest in the Hellenic world and served as the prototype of all successive odeia. It was destroyed by fire during Sulla's siege of Athens in 86 BC but was rebuilt on the same plan some twenty years later.

A path above the last tier of the theatre leads directly to the Asclepeion, which may also be reached from the proscenium by following a winding path to the northwest, skirting the Stoa of Eumenes.

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Ancient Greek Theatre of Dionysus

Looking at the altar now overgrown with weeds in the theatre of Dionysus, one cannot but reflect on how the theatre evolved from a rural troop expressing primitive desires into an expression of the mind. There was a sanctuary of Dionysus on this side of the Acropolis since the time when his cult began to spread.

Pausanias spoke of a Delphic oracle which compelled the reluctant Athenians to accept this foreign god and that it was a zealous priest from Erythres who brought in the first cult statue. Erythres was situated at the point where one crossed from Boeotia into Attica, at the foot of Mt Cithaeron, in present day Kaza. Knowing that the Dionysiac cult reached its peak in Thebes with orgiastic rituals, we can understand the reason why this sacred idol came from there. It is very likely that there was a circular area with an altar situated beside a 6th century temple and used for some early type of performance.

There was also a large round orchestra in the Agora area where, in about 495 BC, during a theatrical contest between Choirilos, Pratinas and Aeschylus, the wooden benches collapsed, killing many spectators. It was then decided to build a more permanent structure. Scholars still disagree about when the theatre of Dionysus was built, because whatever has survived up to our time belongs to various ages. Construction of some kind continued on this site for many centuries. Excavations have shown that the 6th century orchestra was added to an auditorium with lateral retaining walls, which show 5th century construction details. But no trace of permanent seats have been found from that period.

A Doric temple was built in the 4th century to house the gold and ivory statue of Dionysus that Pausanias later saw. The remains of this temple with its magnificent masonry is the first thing we see upon entering the present archaeological site. There was also a wall supporting the earth on the side of the orchestra, which together with the natural slope of the round, created an extended Doric portico near the older archaic temple. In 430 BC, the Athenian orator Lykourgos built the stone seats, saw to the drainage of the rain water and planned the construction of a square building, behind the circular orchestra and higher than it, which had small porticoes near the side entrances: it was the logeio, the first speaking place for the actors.

Later, during the rule of Nero, the stage was raised even higher, and the wall of the logeio was ornamented with statues which can still be seen today. It was then that the orchestra took on its present shape, i.e. 2/3 of the initial circle, with a diameter of almost 20 m, and was paved with marble slabs. Also, during the years of Roman rule, a low stone dividing wall was built over the drainage gutter. Even later, in the 3rd century AD, a certain Phaedros built a new stage, since the theatre was used for various assemblies, as indicated by an inscription on the speaker's podium.

The theatre could hold about 20,000 spectators. In its final form, the lower section had 13 wedge-shaped sections separated by stairways, steps, and 32 rows of seats radiating out around the orchestra. The upper diazoma had another 32 rows of seats, which covered only the centre, since on one side, the Odeion of Pericles abutted onto it and on the other, the natural rock restricted the extent of the auditorium. Later a third section was added, especially for foreigners, increasing the number of rows to a total of 78. Today only 25 of them have been preserved. The material used to build them was Piraeus limestone, with the exception of the 67 officials' thrones in the first row, which were built of white Pentelic marble.

The inscriptions inform us that 45 of these thrones belonged to the elected priests. The others were intended for distinguished citizens, benefactors, local archons, and even orphaned children whose fathers had fallen in war and whom the state wished to honour. Somewhere in the first rows must have been the seats of the critics for the tragedy contests during the Dionysian feasts. During the years of Roman rule, thrones were added for officials of the conquerors, with a special place for the throne of the Hellenist Hadrian in a prominent position.

The most impressive seat was certainly the one bearing the inscription PRIEST OF DIONYSUS ELEFTHERIOS which we can still see facing the altar. This marble throne rests on lion's feet and has bas relief sculpture on its back which depict two strong satyrs carrying an enormous bunch of grapes, the sacred symbol of the god. While all the other seats have a simple rounded line, this one is an imposing throne with arm rests and sculptured decoration of winged human forms. The front of the seat shows griffins and men wearing Eastern dress, perhaps an allusion to the origin of the god.

All this luxury showed how important was the priest of Dionysus Eleutherios who, seated in a place of honour, would watch the performances that constituted a spiritual libation to the god he served. The thrones of the Archon General and the Herald, high officials in the Athenian hierarchy, were right behind the position of the Dionysian priests, stressing the latter's importance even more.

On the side of the stage, construction works were carried out at different epochs owing to the constant changes and use of older materials in subsequent buildings. Archaeologists believe that the stage was built in the first century AD and that the sculptured decoration on the facade of the platform may very possibly have been taken from some other monument on the site and been placed there in some architectural arrangements. These sculptures depict scenes from the myth of Dionysus: a man, perhaps Theseus, and a woman carrying a horn of plenty are welcoming the young god; on the other side Dionysus is shown seated on a luxurious throne similar to that of his priest, while behind him the Parthenon is faintly visible. Most impressive of all is the mature kneeling satyr who, in the position of Atlas, holds the proscenium on his back. When the theatre was excavated, all the sculpted figures on the logeio were covered with a thick layer of plaster which was cleared off in 1862.

The astonished archaeologists realised then that this inexplicable layer was the solution found by some Roman official, with the delicacy of a legionary, to create a closed space in the orchestra which could be filled with water for the representations of naval battles. Apart from this extreme lapse of artistic appreciation, there were also splendid examples of people who contributed to the area, such as the Emperor Hadrian. When Hadrian came to Athens, where he had studied, he gave the order that gladiators' contests be forbidden and such spectacles which had been imposed on the Athenians by his predecessors be banned.

On the east side of the theatre was the Odeion of Pericles, which has yet to be excavated fully. Plutarch mentioned it in his Lives as a large square building with many interior columns supporting the conic wooden roof. This strange edifice was built in the 5th century under the personal supervision of the great Athenian politician and owes its shape to Xerxes' tent which was left behind after the battle of Salamis. In this way Pericles wanted to remind the Athenians of their amazing victory over the Persians and, at the same time, to have a venue for the musical contests held during the Panathenaia which he himself had established. But since the Athenians preferred open spaces for events of all kinds, this odeion came gradually to be used only for try-outs for contests and rehearsals of theatrical works. It was destroyed by fire in the 1st century, when Sulla occupied Athens, but Pausanias reported that it had been rebuilt. Today we can only see part of one side which was hewn out of the rock, occupying part of the upper diazoma of the theatre of Dionysus.

Above Pericles' Odeion and above this upper diazoma of the Theatre of Dionysus, was the Peripatos, a path around the sacred rock and a place for people to spend their leisure time. An inscription carved onto the rocky northeastern surface provides us with information about its name and length. It was about one kilometre long, starting out where the Panathenaic Way ended at the entrance to the Acropolis. It wound past by the Klepsydra spring, the sanctuary of Pan on the north side, the sanctuary of Aphrodite, and the ancient Mycenean stairway which led to another spring. Turning the eastern corner of the rock, the path wended westward above Pericles' odeion and was used for access to the upper tiers in the theatre of Dionysus. It then sloped slightly down toward the sanctuary of Asclepius and then rose again to the foot of the rock, up toward the entrance to the Acropolis. Thus Athenians could walk on either the sunny or shady side of their religious centre.

The most important road in the region was unquestionably Tripodon Street, which started out from the Agora, ended at the Theatre of Dionysus, and was used for festive processions. This broad (6 m. width) and heavily frequented road took its name from the monuments built to house the tripods by which the state honoured sponsors of theatrical performances. Pausanias said that it was not only the monuments that were remarkable, but also the works of art frequently kept inside them. As an example he referred to the Satyr which Praxiteles regarded as one of his best works. It was said that, for her services, the courtesan Phryne had asked the great sculptor to give her whatever work he considered to be his best. But the artist said nothing. Then the clever beauty pretended that the sculptor's workshop had caught fire, and when the frantic Praxiteles exclaimed that if his works the Satyr and Eros burned he would be truly destroyed, everybody realized that he had evaluated his own work. Phryne ultimately chose the statue of Eros for obvious reasons.

Present-day Tripodon Street crosses half the Plaka, whereas the ancient street of the same name is now buried a few metres underground, right below it. The foundations of some new houses, after 1950, revealed the width of the initial street and the pedastals of four choragic monuments, in addition to that which was built in 334 BC to hold on its conic roof the tripod won by the Athenian sponsor Lysikratis. Built in the form of a little cylindrical temple, the most elegant expression of the architecture of the times, this monument has survived through the centuries almost intact. On a heavy square base three m. deep rests a round crepidoma with three steps. On it stands a little marble temple with Corinthian columns three and a half m. high. The architrave is adorned with a narrow frieze of bas-relief sculpture depicting Dionysus' adventures with the pirates. On the dome, there was a triangular Corinthian column which supported the victor's tripod. On the eastern side was the inscription with the name of the sponsor, obviously visible to passers-by.

This marvellous monument has gone through many adventures and name-changes; most Athenians still know it as Diogenes' Lamp. In 1669, it was purchased together with a plot of land by the Capuchin monks who incorporated it into their monastery, first as a chapel and later as a library. That was when it acquired the name Demosthenes' Lamp since its floral crest struck them as resembling the base of a lamp. Demosthenes was just a memory retained by the people. A passing priest testified that it had been the office of Lord Byron, who we know passed through Athens just before the War of Independence broke out in 1821, and that he stayed in the nearby house of the widow Makri. It would appear that this charming structure offered him refuge when he wanted to write poetry, like the lines dedicated to the Fair Maid of Athens. The double name of the monument, Demosthenes and Diogenes, may possibly mean that there was another similar monument in the vicinity, as yet unknown, since the district still conceals many secrets relatively close to the surface of present day roads.

Perhaps the most original of the choragic monuments is that of Thrasyllos of Dekeleia, who won a tripod in the 4th century. Selecting a natural cave right above the theatre of Dionysus, he had the rough rock smoothed down and created an opening about 6 meters wide which he closed with a double- leafed door. On the upper part of the monumental portal, a space was levelled off to receive the honorary tripod. No better place could be found to show off his prize, and for this reason, when Thrasyllos' son Thrasykles, won a choragic award fifty years later, he set his tripod in the same position. Above the cave we can still see other choragic monuments consisting of unfluted columns with triangular Corinthian capitals, built especially to support tripods. This seems to have been was the most popular spot judging from the niches in the rock, perhaps to hold more monuments, and a marble sun dial. The monument of Thrasyllos has come down to us today as a chapel, because the local people dedicated the cave to the Panaghia Chrysospeliotissa (Blessed Virgin of the Golden Cave).

At the foot of the Acropolis, right next to the Theatre of Dionysus, there was another natural cave with a spring from which bubbled forth a small but constant stream of water. In antiquity, this spring was the reason for the site being dedicated to the healing god Asclepius.

In mythologies all over the world, water is regarded as being the principle of life. The Babylonians believed that the universe was created by the union of fresh and salt water and in China the green dragon which brought the waters was the positive male element, Yang. Among the Sumerians, the god of water was called Enki, which means "Master of the Earth" and in Iran the goddess of fertility was Anahita, "the Mistress of the Springs" who is still revered among Zoroastrians. The Aztecs called the god of rain Tlaloc, the terrible, "Flesh of the Earth" whose likeness was found in shrines. Germanic tribes considered the fountain Mimir as the font of all wisdom and Odin, god of war, sacrificed one of his eyes in order to drink of this miraculous water. Among the Indian Bedes, water was regarded as being of dual substance because it destroys by flood and regenerates by growth, but it also heals because it cleanses, washing away whatever is unclean. Equally healing is the water from the spring of Shiloe in the Scriptures.

In antiquity, there were references to purifying baths, in the same way as Saint John later baptized converts. And let us not forget the timeless dream of humans to find the "elixir of life"; the same sources are references to life which rush forth wherever and whenever they want, like uncontrolled mobile presences. The Greeks called springs "nymphs", gave them forms that were fair and fluid like running water, and had them living in damp caves, thus making the very ancient association of water-semen with cave-womb in the creation of life. On the slopes of the Acropolis, there were at least two sanctuaries dedicated to local nymphs, suggesting at the same time also the existence of subterranean rivers. One of these springs was granted to the healing Asclepius when his cult was established in Attica in the 5th century.

Very possibly born a mortal, Asclepius was deified in the classical years in Epidaurus, where the best known of his sanctuaries was located. In myth, he was the son of Apollo, from whom he inherited the ability to heal. His shrines, the Asclepia, were the hospitals of antiquity where human pain received comfort. On the south side of the Acropolis, a natural cave was hollowed out to make a circular area in which patients were bathed before being led to the sleeping room. There at night in their sleep, the god would appear to each one and give them instructions about curing themselves, uttered through the mouths of priest-healers and early psychologists, since the medicine of the times was based primarily on autosuggestion and practical prescriptions. The sleeping room was built in the form of a two-storey portico in front of which there was an open space for a small temple and an altar to the god while other buildings were added later, as the cult gained followers. With the advent of Christianity, the water of the springs was regarded as being blessed, and thus a church of impressive dimensions was soon built on the site of the ancient sanctuaries. Even today the cave is a chapel, and its entrance, with its well-preserved ancient walls, bears witness to the timelessness of hope.

The Asclepeion opened onto the Peripatos which passed right in front of it. In the 2nd century BC, Eumenes, king of Pergamon, built a grand colonnade with 64 Doric columns which started out at the side of the theatre and continued in a westerly direction serving at the same time to support the Peripatos. Very few of the columns in the stoa have been preserved, but the two-storey retaining wall of the Peripatos was preserved fairly well. For the spactators of Dionysian theatre, this meeting place must have been especially popular; thus when Herod Atticus built his own Odeion west of it in the 2nd century AD, he incorporated the Stoa of Eumenes in it as an access to the new building.

Herod Atticus was born in Marathon of a noble family; he was well educated and went on to become a famous orator. Much favoured by the Emperor Hadrian, he was granted significant public offices up to the rank of consul, causing the Athenians to regard him as being the Romans' man. Since he was very rich, Herod was able to offer public buildings to his fellow citizens. In addition to the beautiful villa he built in Kifissia, he remarbled the Athens Stadium on the banks of the Ilissos river and had a bridge constructed over the same river which was still in existence until the end of the 18th century. But his masterpiece was the Odeion, dedicated to his wife Regilla, a work which cost an enormous sum of money owing to the selected materials used to construct it.

The outer three-storey facade of the Odeion was almost thirty metres high, built with carefully quarried large rocks and arched openings which showed that it was the continuation of the older Stoa of Eumenes, thus stressing the natural rock of the Acropolis and the magnificence of the Parthenon at its peak. The interior was in the shape of a smaller Roman theatre, with a stage surrounded by walls on three sides, obviously for acoustic reasons. There were five sections in the lower diazoma and 10 in the upper one, with broad marble benches. The orchestra was confined to a paved semi-circle with steps leading up onto the stage, which had a very luxurious wall construction with openings on two sides and arched decorative niches. But the wonderful thing about this building was that the roof was constructed of cedar wood. The Odeion had a capacity of about 6000 spectators and was in use up to the 3rd century AD, at which time the inhabitants used its building materials for the hasty construction of fortification works. From that time until the last century, its role in the architectural history of the city was insignificant since, because of its position near the ramparts of the Acropolis, it was covered over. A traveller in 1819 mentioned that there were only two sections of seats visible. The Odeion was cleared of earth after the Greek War of Independence and restored both outside and in. After many centuries of abandonment, it has now been turned over to artistic events.

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